Woodlands are among the most valuable habitats in the UK, providing a wide range of environmental, social and economic benefits. They play an important role in reducing flood risk, storing carbon and helping to mitigate climate change, while supporting a rich diversity of plants, fungi and wildlife. Woodlands also provide opportunities for recreation and wellbeing and can supply sustainable timber and other natural resources that contribute to local economies.

Woodland habitats are dominated by trees and are characterised by a series of distinct vertical layers. The canopy, formed by the crowns of mature trees, typically covers more than 20% of the ground area and creates the conditions that support the vegetation beneath. Below this, the understory consists of shrubs, young trees and saplings that compete for available light. The herb layer and forest floor form the lowest layers of the woodland, supporting shade-tolerant wildflowers, ferns, grasses, mosses and fungi as well as a thick layer of leaf litter and organic material.

Healthy woodlands also contain open areas and glades where sunlight reaches the ground, creating valuable edge habitats rich in wildflowers and grasses. These areas support a wide range of pollinators, herbivores and other wildlife, increasing the biodiversity and ecological value of the woodland. Different woodland types can be identified by the tree species, shrubs and ground flora they support.

Examples of species commonly found in UK woodlands

Coniferous woodland

Douglas fir, Corsican pine, Lodgepole pine, Norway spruce, Sitka spruce, Hybrid larch, Noble fir, Western hemlock, Yew, Scots pine.

Most coniferous woodland species are non-native to England and Wales, although Scots pine is native to Scotland.

Broadleaved woodland

Ash, Beech, Hazel, Oak, Small leaved lime, Wild cherry, Rowan, Sycamore, Silver birch, Common dog violet, Bramble, Cow parsley.

Ancient woodland (those which have had consistent tree cover since 1600 AD)

Oak, Ash, Beech, Silver birch, Hornbeam, Wild cherry, Bluebell, Primrose, Yellow Archangel.

Wet woodland

Alder, Birch, Willow.

Further guidance on the management of wet woodlands is in the wet woodland guide.

Invasive species

Look out for invasive species and remove them before they spread:

• Rhododendron
• Japanese knotweed
• Himalayan Balsam
• Variegated Yellow Archangel

Learn more about invasive and non-native plant species legislation in England and Wales, including a list of species and advice for their management and removal.

The likelihood of introducing invasive or non-native species can be reduced by avoiding the movement of contaminated soils, using locally sourced materials where possible, and following good biosecurity practices, such as:

• Staying on designated footpaths where possible.
• Cleaning boots, wheels and tyres before entering the habitat to reduce the risk of introducing pathogens, invasive species and seeds. Clean them again before leaving and allow them to dry thoroughly before visiting another site.
• Checking your dog's paws and fur for seeds and insects.

Learn more about biosecurity on GOV.UK.

Keep reading to learn more about how to identify and manage common tree pests and diseases.

Importance of woodlands in natural flood management

Woodland habitats are very effective at reducing flood risk due to their extensive root systems, dense vegetation and varied topography that help intercept rainfall and slow surface water runoff.

Trees capture and use water by taking it up through their roots and releasing it back into the atmosphere through transpiration and as a result reduce the volume of water reaching rivers. Their roots also improve soil structure allowing more water to soak into the ground rather than flowing over the surface.

Not only do they improve infiltration rates, trees and woody vegetation also increase hydraulic roughness, slowing the movement of water and providing temporary storage during high flow events. Fallen branches and logs can also create leaky dams within watercourses, helping to hold back and attenuate higher flows.

The rough ground beneath woodland habitats, together with features such as leaky dams, can help trap sediment and pollutants before they reach watercourses. This reduces the amount of material carried downstream, helping to keep gullies, culverts and pipes clear while improving water quality.

Please note that the following recommendations are general and may not be appropriate for all woodland habitats. Specific woodland types may require different maintenance. The project accepts no responsibility for any loss or damage caused by these recommendations.

Tree establishment and ongoing care

• Replace failed trees promptly or allow natural regeneration where appropriate
• Keep a 0.5m radius around each tree free of weeds for the first three years
• Monitor tree health regularly, identifying and managing pests and diseases where necessary
• Protect young trees from pests, particularly grey squirrels and deer
• Ensure glades remain open through appropriate cutting and/or grazing

Avoid

• Damaging tree guards, especially during weeding operations
• Do not retain tree guards for more than five years, as they can restrict tree growth
• Thinning, coppicing, pollarding, or pruning during bird nesting season
• Prevent soil compaction caused by machinery
• Prevent Invasive Non-Native Species (INNS) from establishing or spreading within the woodland

Biodiversity enhancement

• Install nesting boxes for birds, bats, and invertebrates, particularly in young woodlands where natural habitat features are limited
• Manage glades and scalloped rides on a rotational cutting programme to increase structural diversity
• Encourage structural complexity and variation through techniques such as thinning, coppicing, formative pruning, and pollarding (outside nesting season)
• Retain standing and fallen deadwood, to provide valuable habitat for a wide range of species

Changing management depending on the age of your woodland

Management activities may change as your woodland matures. The Woodland Trust has some useful guidance which details different management tasks depending on the age of your woodland.

Younger woodlands require more 'hands-on' maintenance and protection than mature woodlands as they have to compete with weeds and grasses and are more at risk of damage from tree pests such as grey squirrels and deer.

Tree health, pests and diseases

Trees face the threat of damage or death from a wide range of pests and diseases, many of which arise from non‑native species being introduced into UK ecosystems where they lack natural predators, environmental checks, or suitable host plants to restrict their impact.

Help prevent the spread of harmful organisms by ensuring good biosecurity practices are followed. This should be done all year round, but it is particularly vital during wet periods as diseases can be spread much more easily.

You can find more information on tree pests, diseases and their management on the GOV.UK and Woodland Trust websites.

Grey squirrels and deer

Grey squirrels and deer damage trees of all ages by browsing, bark stripping, and fraying for both behavioural and feeding purposes. This can create lesions and areas of bark loss, which can disrupt tree growth and make them more susceptible to disease.

Look out for:

• Teeth marks, fraying and bark stripping
• The height of the damage (deer damage is generally lower down the trunk)
• Droppings and deer tracks

Methods to manage grey squirrels:

• Trapping and shooting - providing UK Gun Laws are followed, this practice is currently legal in the UK and is an effective method of population control
• Natural deterrents, for example smells or tastes they dislike such as capsaicin (found in chilli powder) or fox urine

More information is available from Forest Research.

Methods to manage deer:

• Fencing
• Tree guards
• Deer repellent sprayed onto trees
• Shooting - you may require a licence and must adhere to UK laws and open seasons relating to different deer species

Tree Preservation Order (TPO)

Tree Preservation Orders (TPOs) protect trees from being cut down, lopped, uprooted, damaged, or destroyed without written consent from the local authority.

TPOs can apply to individual trees, groups of trees, areas containing trees, and woodlands.

There are around 500 TPOs across Herefordshire. To find out more and check whether your land contains protected trees view the administrative map.

Felling licences

Felling licences aren't always required to carry out tree works, but it is important to be aware of when they are needed. See the GOV.UK website for more details on tree felling licences.

Additional permissions or consents may be required depending on the location of the woodland and the nature of the proposed works.

Ordinary Watercourse Consents (OWC)

To make changes to an ordinary watercourse, such as a river, stream, ditch or drain, you may need an Ordinary Watercourse Consent. Consent is often required for works that could affect the flow of water, including the installation of new pipes, culverts, leaky dams or other in-channel structures. Consent must be obtained before work begins. For more information, visit the make changes to a watercourse page.

• High diversity in the age and species of trees and shrubs, which varies woodland structure and resilience to pests, disease and environmental change
• Healthy trees with minimal to no signs of disease or physical damage
• A variety of birdsong and other wildlife activity
• Areas of open glades and rides
• Microhabitats such as rotting logs and standing and fallen deadwood.

Woodland charities and related organisations

Regional

• Herefordshire Wildlife Trust
• Herefordshire Tree Forum

National

• Forestry Commission
• National Trust
• Woodland Trust
• Royal Forestry Society
• The Tree Council and Tree Warden Network

Visit the Natural Flood Management Hub to explore NFM Projects across the UK and view their Agricultural Land Management guide.

Visit the NFM evidence directory for more information about how working with natural processes reduces flood risk.